土木外文文獻翻譯

Ⅰ 跪求一份土木工程外文文獻最好帶有翻譯

外刊文獻，實在沒有就關於土木工程的就好，註明出處。求各位大神

Ⅱ 關於土木的外文翻譯

土木的外文翻譯
這個絕對可以

Ⅲ 土木工程文獻翻譯

pdf的英文文獻 帶6000字翻譯的6關6於4結8構2；6施5工9；0工民建（加數字）

Ⅳ 求一篇土木工程英文文獻翻譯，畢業設計用的

剛好我也在做畢業設計 把我的給你用吧

Traditional Construction Proceres
As mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procere is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schele. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and services.
A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor.
Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the owner.
Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the homes.
Administration of the construction procere often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schele. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and construction.
Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their trade.
During construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner』s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect』s superintendent, engineer』s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent intervals.
In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building code.
Following is a description of the basic traditional construction procere for a multistory building.
After the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway departments.
The general contractor plans and scheles construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to proceed.
Before construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out construction.
Field offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted away.
Next, the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is drained.
Major construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of personnel.
As the building rises, pipes, cts, and electric conit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,
Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and cleaned.
The owner』s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.

傳統的施工程序
眾所周知，在傳統的施工程序中進行施工的承包商。盡管他們想滿足業主和建築設計師的要求，但是最終還是以賺取利潤為主要目標的。因此，他們最初的任務是對編寫投標價格的建築成本進行准確的估計。這就需要進行前期調查的工作並且做出施工時間表。等合約批出後，施工方必須提供所有材料並支付其費用，設備，電力，勞動力。業主此時需要進行必要的監督。
一個總承包商承擔一個建築整體的責任。從事分包的承建商則需承擔建造工程所需的各個工作。例如，管道承包商安裝水管，電業承辦商安裝電氣系統，電梯則由電梯承包商安裝。他們與總承包商簽訂合同，費用由總承包商支付。
有時候，除了一個總承包商，還有各種專業承包商，如電氣和機械承包商，執行工作時需要與業主簽訂合同。這種承包商被稱為間接承包商。他們的工作，由總承包商協調，但它們都是由業主直接聯系。
還有些時候，業主可以使用設計建造方法同時兼有設計和建築施工單位的職能。這些單位被稱為設計建造承包商。這方面的一個類型的合同聘用的變化是由一戶住宅或低層住宅建築群的開發。在房屋建築設計和建造的住房，但設計之前需要由購買房屋的業主完成。
施工過程管理往往是困難的。因此，一些業主會去尋求專家的協助，這些專家被稱為專業施工經理，他們具有豐富的施工經驗。施工經理與總承包商進行談判，並選擇其中一個項目。施工經理通常還監督分包商。在施工期間，它們有助於控製成本，加快運送設備和材料，並保持工作的進度。在依法行政，協助設計和建設的情況下，業主可以選擇從事建築項目經理。
建築承包商僱用的勞動力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建築工程中從事技術活，如木工，管道工，工會成員和電工工會，小工則執行了分配給他們的工作。
在施工期間，一切工作都要驗收。因此，業主通過建築師和監理經常進行督查。可能是名為工程員，建築師或駐地工程師。作為業主的代表實地視察。核查人員必須確保工程符合合同文件的要求，並在安全的條件下進行的責任。這種檢查可作出重復。
此外，驗收還是需要一個或多個政府機構的代表。他們必須確保工程符合法律要求，並負責檢查與合同文件是否一致。這種視察一般定期或在某些階段施工結束以後進行。地方或國家建設部門具有管轄權。這些檢查的目的是確保符合當地或國家的建築規范。
以下是傳統多層建築施工的基本程序。
建造開始後合同授予開發商，業主可要求開發商開始施工之前簽約給或之後簽約發出書面通知的同時另一部分工作繼續進行。緊接著施工方根據需要獲取建築許可證，例如當地的建設，供水，污水處理，政府機構和公路部門。
總承包商的計劃和進度詳細施工作業以及動員項目設備和人員。分包商得到通知後，做出簽訂合同的意向或授予分包合同書，然後給出在適當的時候進行通知。
在施工前啟動，總承包商要進行的一項調查就是鄰近結構和地形，這些都要記錄在案，並要熟悉當地情況。這項調查結束以後，隨即進行布局建設。
承建商的現場辦事處都建在施工現場或附近。為了安全起見，必須從腳手架上移除的東西，產生的碎片都要運走。
下一步，該網架是為建設工程准備的。這項工作為地下室開挖和基礎開挖的深度，以及公用事業管道轉移找到正確的標高。深挖掘，土方支撐，底部排出。
建築開始於基礎上，然後是承重牆和結構框架的施工。梯子，樓梯，或電梯的安裝，可讓施工人員往返於各個樓層。此外，可安裝卷揚機來運送材料。
由於建築高度的上升，管道，電力管道和線路安裝以及永久地板，外牆，窗戶和構造的影響。在適當的時候，永久的電梯安裝。再需要的情況下可以安裝防火卷簾。其次，屋頂等地方也需要安裝。
精加工工序安裝有包括以下內容：天花板，瓷磚，牆板，牆壁鑲板，水管裝置，加熱爐，空氣調節設備，加熱和冷卻室裝置;自動扶梯;地板，窗戶玻璃;活動板，門;電氣設備和儀器，包括照明燈具，開關，變壓器，控制器，遵照項目的圖紙和規格。外地辦事處，圍欄，橋梁和其他臨時建築，公共設備，如天然氣，電力管道，水管，都連接到建築上。最後，是建築物內部的打掃和清洗。
業主的代表，會給建設工程作最後檢查。如果他們滿意並認為符合合同文件，那麼業主接受該項目，並交給總承包商的一個佔用證書，這表明，總承包商已完成建設，建設部門再根據建築規范的要求發放最後付款。

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